• Understand and be able to explain Albert Hirschman’s theory of exit, voice, and loyalty.

Hirschman states when citizens are dissatisfied they have two options, they can either exit or they can voice. exiting refers to moving or withdrawing from the area while voice refers to attempting to change or fix the problem. loyalty reflects the extent to which residents are willing to trade off the certainty of exit against the uncertainties of improving local conditions (9). so for instance the more loyal one has for a city the more likely they are to choose the option of voice over exit. Whereas a person with little to no loyalty is most likely to opt for exit. A citizen acquires loyalty when they are rooted in the community through work or socially or financially. Their loyalty is then the main factor by which a citizen decides between voice and exit.